White Teachers/ Diverse Classrooms: A Guide to Building Inclusive Schools, Promoting High Expectations, and Eliminating Racism
White Teachers/ Diverse Classrooms: A Guide to Building Inclusive Schools, Promoting High Expectations, and Eliminating Racism is a collection of writings that educate about issues with race in American classrooms. Chapter 6, entitled ‘But Good Intentions Are Not Enough: Theoretical and Philosophical Relevance in Teaching Students of Color brings to light an issue that has continuously appeared in my research, “deficit thinking and teaching.” (Pg. 80) This chapter mentions that teachers and schools are falling behind in teaching culturally relevant material to minority students. One theory is, “Deficit thinking- teachers’ perceptions that students of color do not already possess the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to succeed and learn – can result in the development of curriculum and instruction that fall short of optimal teaching and learning.” (Pg. 81) It is mentioned that difference is equated with deficiency and students who do not fit into traditional educational structures do not have the skills to participate in mainstream classes. This chapter does not blame teachers, but rather recognize that our history has led to stereotypes and biases that are deep rooted and commonly repeated.
I learned that the deficit thinking theory is closely related to the two most common categories of disability that African Americans are placed in, EBD and ID. The belief that these students are not capable of behaving and achieving in classes with their non-colored peers proves that education professionals see them as behind in what is considered ‘typical’ development. The two categories of disability above are subjective and based on different standards from school to school, and different biases across the country. This chapter helps in answering my guiding question by offering a relevant theory as to why African Americans with disabilities fall behind in school and do not connect to the material they are learning.
Milner, H. R. (2006). But good intentions are not enough: theoretical and philosophical relevance in teaching students of color. In L. Julie & C. W. Lewis (Eds.), White teachers/ diverse classrooms: A guide to building inclusive schools, promoting high expectations, and eliminating racism (1st ed., pp. 79-90). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC.
To Label or Not to Label: The Special Education Question for African Americans
To Label or Not to Label: The Special Education Question for African Americans is an article published by Educational Foundations in 2012. The article argues that labeling African Americans as disabled is detrimental to their academic and overall success. It is mentioned that the word ‘disability’ means not having ability, and learning disability means not having the ability to learn. Historically, African Americans have suffered labels that deem them inferior in our society, and the high-incidence categories such as Intellectually Disabled (ID), Learning Disabled (LD), and Emotional Behavioral Disabled (EBD) suggests a deficit in a large population of these individuals. This article mentions how, “Howard Becker’s (1963) classic labeling theory asserts that labels influence the perceptions of both the individual and other members of society. Once the majority members of a society (e.g., European Americans/Whites in the United States) have decided that certain behaviors are outside of the societal norms or unlawful, any individuals exhibiting such behaviors are considered deviants.” The classic labeling theory suggests that both the labeler and the ones being labeled fall into a trap in which the labeler becomes biased and the ones being labeled live according to their label.
IDEA of 2004 creates more definite disability categories and African Americans are placed in ‘judgement’ categories that place students in restricted environments that do not cater to their social or cultural needs. “All three categories involve attempting to assess and evaluate psychological or emotional factors to ultimately arrive at an accurate label for a student.” I learned that the first step to labeling a student disabled according to IDEA is referral, which may result from the bias of a teacher or school staff based on traditional, American-European norms of appropriate behavior and academic standards. The second step is assessment, which is based on tests that often do not fit the social or cultural standards of young African American males, especially linguistically and behaviorally. The third step is eligibility determination which puts the student in a category of disability based on observations, and often very little parent or student input. And the fourth step is to place students in ‘the least restrictive environment,’ although many behavior disabilities result in restrictive, separated classrooms. I learned, “in 2002-2003, African-American students were three times more likely to be labeled mentally retarded (intellectually disabled) and 2.3 times more likely to be labeled emotionally disturbed than all other racial ethnic groups combined (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2009).” The extremely high rates for these specific categories present a major problem in the education of African American males, and much insight into why and how these students are being classified. High school graduation rates are the lowest among African American students with disabilities, more than any other racial/ethnic group. This article is helpful in answering my guiding question because it offers a lot of numerical data about the disproportionate amount of African American students with disabilities. This is also helpful because it has insight into theories about how labeling is affecting African Americans in special education, just as it has historically with the European-American view of African Americans as inferior.
Gold, M. E., & Richards, H. (2012). To label or not to label: the special education question for African Americans. Educational Foundations, 26(1-2), 143+. Retrieved from https://stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA308742350&v=2.1&u=mora54187&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=beabb9bb1858a63f4c6bae87a63fd43d
Nelson Beats the Odds
Nelson Beats the Odds is a graphic novel written by Ronnie Sidney II and illustrated by Traci Van Wagoner. The author Ronnie based this graphic novel on his struggle as an African American student in special education. Ronnie was diagnosed with ADHD because he was unable to sit still and keep quiet in class. The diagnosis was based on behavior that was not suitable for his elderly white teacher, and he was also labeled Specific Learning Disabled (SLD) because of his poor hand-writing. Nelson is the main character in the story and he is based on Ronnie himself. “Nelson’s parents refuse to put him on medication, but they thought that special education would help him reach his maximum ability.” (Pg.13) The embarrassment of being in special education leads Nelson to have lower self-confidence as he is constantly worried about being teased at school, which is all too common in our society. The support of Nelson’s parents and teachers such as Mrs. T help Nelson gain confidence in his academic ability and re-enter mainstream classes with his friends. Nelson finds himself in developmental algebra and has some behavior issues due to lack of challenging material and his teacher Mr. Stevenson yells at him that he will never attend college. “Nelson told himself that day that he would prove Mr. Stevenson wrong and go to college.” (Pg. 30) Nelson attends community college as a means to gain the skills and confidence to do well in a bachelor’s program and ends up graduating at the top of his class from a university.
Nelson attributes his success to his parents and his teachers, especially Mrs. T. The goal in writing this story is for Ronnie to share his experience and teach kids that students with disabilities can succeed and prosper in American society. Ronnie has a Master of Social Work degree and has spent his career working in the mental health and academic counseling field. The stress and anxiety of students in special education classes is portrayed very well by Nelson not telling his friends, and sneaking around to his classes as to not be noticed as a special education student. The stigma of having a disability causes students to lack confidence in the classroom which has long-lasting effects if they are not supported by their parents and teachers. Judging students based on behavior issues more so than academic challenges leads to disproportionate numbers of African American students in special education. This creative work helps in answering my guiding question because it shows biased teachers views of a young African American student and how the effects of being categorized as disabled affects the confidence of students. This also relates to my research because the support from Nelson’s parents and some teachers has been shown to be two of the largest factors in helping students with disabilities succeed in school and life. This graphic novel is inspiring and relevant for African American students with special needs to overcome obstacles they face in education.
On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Over-representation
On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Over-representation is a comprehensive guide put together by the Office of Special Education Programs and the U.S. Department of Education, and published by the National Institute for Urban School Improvement. The guide offers data and statistics that represent the disproportionate amount of African American students in special education and cultural issues that lead to professional bias when assessing students. “Inadequate and inappropriate referral, assessment, and evaluation procedures used either to refer students for possible inclusion in special education, or to determine their placement in special education, contribute greatly to the large numbers of minority students in these programs.” (Pg. 8) The disconnect between expectations of professional educators and disadvantaged African American students leads to misunderstandings of youths and the challenges they have faced. Most assessments are based on in-class behavior, and the experiences of students and their home-life are not taken into account. In districts where poverty is high teachers are not qualified or culturally competent to teach students who are disadvantaged and live in communities where drug-abuse, violence, and crime are prevalent.
African American students are disproportionately labeled as Emotionally Disturbed and Mentally Disabled which are considered ‘judgement’ categories and are based on subjective, clinical evaluations. A main issue having to do with this evaluation process is that it varies from state to state, district to district, and school to school. Because the eligibility standards for these two categories are subjective there is a large variation throughout the United States. Along with large variations in evaluations, there are different cultural biases from professional educators throughout the United States. “Likewise, cultural diversity is often viewed as a “difference” or “deviance” from the norm associated with ethnicity, race, gender, language, and social class. But different from what? In most cases the “what” would refer to the dominant White, middle class culture.” (Pg. 14) The educational culture in the U.S. has been created based on White, western standards of knowledge, culture, and behavior. The difference between White and African American culture are not taken into account when schools are evaluating students and more in-depth practices are needed to contribute to labeling children disabled. I learned that social and cultural differences are leading to classifying children as disabled because they are seen as unprepared for academics in the traditional sense. This guide helps answer my guiding question by gathering a lot of information about what the issues are, how they are being perpetuated, and what needs to be done in order to be more culturally sensitive to groups that are being disproportionately placed in special education.
Meyer, G., & Patton, J. M. (2001, December). ERIC ED462487: On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Overrepresentation: What Do We Know? Where Do We Go? On Point…Brief Discussions of Critical Issues in Urban Education. : ERIC : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive. Retrieved July 15, 2016, from https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED462487
Students with Emotional Disturbance
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practices website presents a source from the United States Department of Education Office of Special Educations Programs that explains the eligibility of Emotional Disturbance (ED) and data about students in this category. The criteria for ED include; “(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. (B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. (C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. (D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.” Many of these categories are subjective and considered ‘judgement’ based. Emotional disturbance is highest among African American male students, and a common theme has persisted in this category for quite some time. “In comparison with other students, both with and without disabilities, children with emotional disturbance are more likely to be male, African American, and economically disadvantaged.”
The website states that the ED category has the highest rate of gender difference than any other disability category at 76.4% male. I knew there was a disproportion of males in this category, but I learned it was more than three quarters which was surprising. I learned that females tend to internalize their emotional disturbance, while males tend to act out and disrupt which is more apparent in the standard classroom structure. I learned that this label is often comorbid with other issues such as ADHD, depression, and anxiety disorders all which are common in African American male students. I also learned that, “Research suggests that the high identification rates for African Americans may be due both to teacher expectations regarding normative behavior and to a paucity of culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate assessment instruments.” African American culture, particularly for disadvantaged families, creates a world for children that is much unlike that of the typical classroom structure. Students are being judged in a system that is extremely different from their home and community, and this judgement is leading to the placement in special education based on their life experience rather than academic challenges. Many students are labeled ED at a very young age, but research shows that students with this disability are more often labeled at a later age than any other category under IDEA. This study aides in answering my guiding question by explaining eligibility for the category in which disadvantaged African American students are most placed, and also answers how certain cultural experiences lead into specific problems in a traditional classroom.
Percentage of Students with Disabilities Identified as Having Emotional Disturbance (1995-96)
| Age (years) | 6-7 | 8-9 | 10-11 | 12-13 | 14-15 | 16-17 |
| Percentage | 3.5% | 5.6% | 7.3% | 10.2% | 13.1% | 13.0% |
Students with Emotional Disturbance: Eligibility and Characteristics. (2001). Retrieved July 19, 2016, from http://cecp.air.org/resources/20th/eligchar.asp
An Interview with Keith Debro
Experiential Resource: An Interview with Keith Debro
Along with being a 25 year, special education veteran at the Oakland Unified School District, Keith Debro is also a professor at Saint Mary’s College of California Kalmanovitz School of Education. Having been a student in Keith’s Universal Access to Education course, I was honored when he agreed to do an interview. My questions are based on my research about minority students in special education, particularly African American students.
Question 1: Are African American students unfairly assessed with disabilities due to behavior?
Keith agreed that there has been a long history of unfair assessment due to behavior. African American students are often put into special education classes at a very young age because they do not fit into the typical classroom structure, and they fall way behind in academics after being placed in special education classrooms. Teachers often label students who do not cooperate as having a learning disability, but really they do not have the skills to behave according to many teacher’s standards. Keith says that many African American students are misunderstood because of a cultural difference.
Question 2: Is the assessment for students with disabilities, particularly ID and EBD, fair for African American students?
Keith has a lot of experience seeing students labeled ID and EBD and put into special education based on behavior issues. Keith explained that the process for labeling children is based on the school’s view of the student, rather than a full assessment of the student’s background. Schools basically only need permission from a parent/guardian in making a huge life choice for these students. Many parents in Oakland do not have an understanding of the process and are often not involved other than giving consent and being present for an IEP/504 meeting. Keith explained that a lot of the paperwork and terminology is quite difficult for parents to understand and that schools should better educate parents on what their information means and how it will affect their child.
Question 3: Has the Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 changed special education in Oakland?
Having 25 years of experience in Oakland, Keith has seen many re-authorizations of this act. Keith said that it has not changed the patterns of special education in Oakland. Students are still being labeled at a young age and they fall behind academically and tend to stay in special education their whole educational career. Many opportunities are taken away from these students, and schools should work harder with parents in educating them before placing students on this path.
Question 4: Do special education programs work toward getting students back in mainstream classes?
Keith stated that there is very little work done to help the students gain the skills and academic levels that are considered ‘mainstream.’ Students fall behind academically and do not feel comfortable in general education classes. Keith said that many students communicate their feelings about regular classes and feel more comfortable in special education because they have fallen behind. I mentioned the Oakland Unified School District website and how it portrays inclusion as a huge part of its practice and he disagreed with this portrayal. Keith said he had not seen the website, but wanted to see it because there is a large separation of students with special needs and inclusion is not happening the way the website states.
Keith gave me three resources to use for my research and I learned a lot about the experiences of African American students in Oakland. I learned that schools are not educating parents and learning the background of students who are labeled ‘disabled.’ I think it is very important for parents to have all the information about the needs of their children, and that schools should do a better job assessing the student as a whole person, not a series of behaviors. IDEA states that parents are to be very much involved in this process, and I learned that parents are hardly consulted and the schools make almost all the decisions on labeling and deciding on how to educate these children. Many students in Oakland come from disadvantaged families and due to their behavior they lose out on educational opportunities when put into special education. Special education classes lead to students falling behind academically, when often times there was not a learning disability in the first place. I learned that students are often times labeled disabled at a very young age based on behavior and not biological deficiencies. What I most took away from this interview was that the need to educate parents and families about the process of labeling children and putting them in special education is the school’s responsibility, but many schools are failing to do so. This interview helps immensely in my research because Oakland has a large population of African American students in special education and the problems that many communities are facing are present in Oakland.
The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post–High School Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities
The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post–High School Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities is research conducted by the Hamilton Institute on Disabilities and the United States Department of Education. The study focuses on SES and students with disabilities achievement of high school graduation rates, post-secondary education enrollment, and employment. More than 11, 000 students were initially involved in the study and the data sources include parent/youth interviews, high school transcripts, and school district rosters. The measures of this study are socioeconomic status, youth outcomes, mediators, and covariates.
The mediators include parent and school involvement in working with students with special needs and the covariates are students gender and race/ethnicity. Research shows that, “SES has a statistically significant but relatively small effect on the outcomes studied.” (Pg. 14) Because the study focused on parent and school involvement, achievement outcomes were considered higher for African American students with disabilities due to the nature of the study. “This finding is consistent with research that identifies parents’ expectations as the most potent type of parent involvement when it comes to students’ academic achievement. Parents are more likely to hold that expectation if, starting early in their children’s school careers, educators also hold and communicate it.” (Pg. 14) The role of parents and educators are the main mediating factor for achievement for students with disabilities coming from a disadvantaged background. While I am aware that these factors have a huge implication on student success, I learned that studies such as these help to educate families and schools and help to raise the standards for students with disabilities.
African American students are largely labeled Intellectually Disabled (ID), which is considered a ‘judgement’ category and not a biological deficiency. The study states, “Youth with intellectual disabilities, for example, had significantly lower odds of achieving all four outcomes than youth with LD.” (Pg. 12) I learned that students with intellectual disabilities, particularly African American, are at the highest risk of not completing high school, enrolling in post-secondary education, or finding competitive employment. This study helps to answer my guiding question by offering a view of what the factors are in promoting achievement for students with disabilities and how SES and type of disability help predict outcomes for African American students with special needs.
Wagner, M. M., Newman, L. A., & Javitz, H. S. (2014). The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post-High School Outcomes of Youth With Disabilities. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals,37(1), 5-17. doi:10.1177/2165143414523980
http://m.cde.sagepub.com.stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/content/37/1/5.full.pdf
Content Guiding Questions
- Why is there disproportionate numbers of minority students in special education classes?
- Why is there a disproportionate amount of African-American and Latino boys in special education classes?
Jenna Moreno
I am an enthusiastic educator and I want to provide life long learning skills for my students.
Students with Emotional Disturbance
The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practices website presents a source from the United States Department of Education Office of Special Educations Programs that explains the eligibility of Emotional Disturbance (ED) and data about students in this category. The criteria for ED include; “(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. (B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. (C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. (D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.” Many of these categories are subjective and considered ‘judgement’ based. Emotional disturbance is highest among African American male students, and a common theme has persisted in this category for quite some time. “In comparison with other students, both with and without disabilities, children with emotional disturbance are more likely to be male, African American, and economically disadvantaged.”
The website states that the ED category has the highest rate of gender difference than any other disability category at 76.4% male. I knew there was a disproportion of males in this category, but I learned it was more than three quarters which was surprising. I learned that females tend to internalize their emotional disturbance, while males tend to act out and disrupt which is more apparent in the standard classroom structure. I learned that this label is often comorbid with other issues such as ADHD, depression, and anxiety disorders all which are common in African American male students. I also learned that, “Research suggests that the high identification rates for African Americans may be due both to teacher expectations regarding normative behavior and to a paucity of culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate assessment instruments.” African American culture, particularly for disadvantaged families, creates a world for children that is much unlike that of the typical classroom structure. Students are being judged in a system that is extremely different from their home and community, and this judgement is leading to the placement in special education based on their life experience rather than academic challenges. Many students are labeled ED at a very young age, but research shows that students with this disability are more often labeled at a later age than any other category under IDEA. This study aides in answering my guiding question by explaining eligibility for the category in which disadvantaged African American students are most placed, and also answers how certain cultural experiences lead into specific problems in a traditional classroom.
Percentage of Students with Disabilities Identified as Having Emotional Disturbance (1995-96)
| Age (years) | 6-7 | 8-9 | 10-11 | 12-13 | 14-15 | 16-17 |
| Percentage | 3.5% | 5.6% | 7.3% | 10.2% | 13.1% | 13.0% |
Students with Emotional Disturbance: Eligibility and Characteristics. (2001). Retrieved July 19, 2016, from http://cecp.air.org/resources/20th/eligchar.asp
Oakland Program for Exceptional Children
The Oakland Program for Exceptional Children is an amazing program for students with special needs. Oakland Unified School District has taken corporate reform into account, and then realized it does not fit the needs of the students. Oakland had a very diverse community, and the majority is African American. Inclusion is a major goal for OUSD because that is what IDEA calls for. OUSD works towards inclusion because of the emotional and mental welfare of each and every student. The majority of Oakland special needs students are mild to moderate, which begs the question is it that severe? At one point Mary Busy says, “inclusion is just good teaching.” Which I find agreeable. Each and every child learns at a different pace, which makes it even more appropriate to have inclusion with modifications as a factor.
Oakland Unified School district is one of the first school districts I have heard use the term “college, career, and community ready.” This is important in Oakland because there is a lot of poverty, and students need to learn how to be productive members of Oakland to help the city grow. With the majority of Oakland students in special education in the mild to moderate categories such as severe emotional disturbance (SER) and educable mentally retarded (EMR), there is a lot of opportunity to help these students enter mainstream classes. Being labeled ‘special needs’ can affect the confidence of students and inclusion is key to creating a healthy school climate for all individuals.
Programs for Exceptional Children (Special Education). (n.d.). Retrieved July 9, 2016, from http://www.ousd.org/pec
Jenna Moreno 