To Label or Not to Label: The Special Education Question for African Americans

To Label or Not to Label: The Special Education Question for African Americans is an article published by Educational Foundations in 2012. The article argues that labeling African Americans as disabled is detrimental to their academic and overall success. It is mentioned that the word ‘disability’ means not having ability, and learning disability means not having the ability to learn. Historically, African Americans have suffered labels that deem them inferior in our society, and the high-incidence categories such as Intellectually Disabled (ID), Learning Disabled (LD), and Emotional Behavioral Disabled (EBD) suggests a deficit in a large population of these individuals. This article mentions how, “Howard Becker’s (1963) classic labeling theory asserts that labels influence the perceptions of both the individual and other members of society. Once the majority members of a society (e.g., European Americans/Whites in the United States) have decided that certain behaviors are outside of the societal norms or unlawful, any individuals exhibiting such behaviors are considered deviants.” The classic labeling theory suggests that both the labeler and the ones being labeled fall into a trap in which the labeler becomes biased and the ones being labeled live according to their label.

IDEA of 2004 creates more definite disability categories and African Americans are placed in ‘judgement’ categories that place students in restricted environments that do not cater to their social or cultural needs. “All three categories involve attempting to assess and evaluate psychological or emotional factors to ultimately arrive at an accurate label for a student.” I learned that the first step to labeling a student disabled according to IDEA is referral, which may result from the bias of a teacher or school staff based on traditional, American-European norms of appropriate behavior and academic standards. The second step is assessment, which is based on tests that often do not fit the social or cultural standards of young African American males, especially linguistically and behaviorally. The third step is eligibility determination which puts the student in a category of disability based on observations, and often very little parent or student input. And the fourth step is to place students in ‘the least restrictive environment,’ although many behavior disabilities result in restrictive, separated classrooms. I learned, “in 2002-2003, African-American students were three times more likely to be labeled mentally retarded (intellectually disabled) and 2.3 times more likely to be labeled emotionally disturbed than all other racial ethnic groups combined (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2009).” The extremely high rates for these specific categories present a major problem in the education of African American males, and much insight into why and how these students are being classified. High school graduation rates are the lowest among African American students with disabilities, more than any other racial/ethnic group. This article is helpful in answering my guiding question because it offers a lot of numerical data about the disproportionate amount of African American students with disabilities. This is also helpful because it has insight into theories about how labeling is affecting African Americans in special education, just as it has historically with the European-American view of African Americans as inferior.

Gold, M. E., & Richards, H. (2012). To label or not to label: the special education question for African Americans. Educational Foundations, 26(1-2), 143+. Retrieved from https://stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://go.galegroup.com.stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA308742350&v=2.1&u=mora54187&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=beabb9bb1858a63f4c6bae87a63fd43d

On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Over-representation

On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Over-representation is a comprehensive guide put together by the Office of Special Education Programs and the U.S. Department of Education, and published by the National Institute for Urban School Improvement. The guide offers data and statistics that represent the disproportionate amount of African American students in special education and cultural issues that lead to professional bias when assessing students. “Inadequate and inappropriate referral, assessment, and evaluation procedures used either to refer students for possible inclusion in special education, or to determine their placement in special education, contribute greatly to the large numbers of minority students in these programs.” (Pg. 8) The disconnect between expectations of professional educators and disadvantaged African American students leads to misunderstandings of youths and the challenges they have faced. Most assessments are based on in-class behavior, and the experiences of students and their home-life are not taken into account. In districts where poverty is high teachers are not qualified or culturally competent to teach students who are disadvantaged and live in communities where drug-abuse, violence, and crime are prevalent.

African American students are disproportionately labeled as Emotionally Disturbed and Mentally Disabled which are considered ‘judgement’ categories and are based on subjective, clinical evaluations. A main issue having to do with this evaluation process is that it varies from state to state, district to district, and school to school. Because the eligibility standards for these two categories are subjective there is a large variation throughout the United States. Along with large variations in evaluations, there are different cultural biases from professional educators throughout the United States. “Likewise, cultural diversity is often viewed as a “difference” or “deviance” from the norm associated with ethnicity, race, gender, language, and social class. But different from what? In most cases the “what” would refer to the dominant White, middle class culture.” (Pg. 14) The educational culture in the U.S. has been created based on White, western standards of knowledge, culture, and behavior. The difference between White and African American culture are not taken into account when schools are evaluating students and more in-depth practices are needed to contribute to labeling children disabled. I learned that social and cultural differences are leading to classifying children as disabled because they are seen as unprepared for academics in the traditional sense. This guide helps answer my guiding question by gathering a lot of information about what the issues are, how they are being perpetuated, and what needs to be done in order to be more culturally sensitive to groups that are being disproportionately placed in special education.

Meyer, G., & Patton, J. M. (2001, December). ERIC ED462487: On the Nexus of Race, Disability, and Overrepresentation: What Do We Know? Where Do We Go? On Point…Brief Discussions of Critical Issues in Urban Education. : ERIC : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive. Retrieved July 15, 2016, from https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED462487

The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post–High School Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities

The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post–High School Outcomes of Youth with Disabilities is research conducted by the Hamilton Institute on Disabilities and the United States Department of Education. The study focuses on SES and students with disabilities achievement of high school graduation rates, post-secondary education enrollment, and employment. More than 11, 000 students were initially involved in the study and the data sources include parent/youth interviews, high school transcripts, and school district rosters. The measures of this study are socioeconomic status, youth outcomes, mediators, and covariates.

_­The mediators include parent and school involvement in working with students with special needs and the covariates are students gender and race/ethnicity. Research shows that, “SES has a statistically significant but relatively small effect on the outcomes studied.” (Pg. 14) Because the study focused on parent and school involvement, achievement outcomes were considered higher for African American students with disabilities due to the nature of the study. “This finding is consistent with research that identifies parents’ expectations as the most potent type of parent involvement when it comes to students’ academic achievement. Parents are more likely to hold that expectation if, starting early in their children’s school careers, educators also hold and communicate it.” (Pg. 14) The role of parents and educators are the main mediating factor for achievement for students with disabilities coming from a disadvantaged background. While I am aware that these factors have a huge implication on student success, I learned that studies such as these help to educate families and schools and help to raise the standards for students with disabilities.

African American students are largely labeled Intellectually Disabled (ID), which is considered a ‘judgement’ category and not a biological deficiency. The study states, “Youth with intellectual disabilities, for example, had significantly lower odds of achieving all four outcomes than youth with LD.” (Pg. 12) I learned that students with intellectual disabilities, particularly African American, are at the highest risk of not completing high school, enrolling in post-secondary education, or finding competitive employment. This study helps to answer my guiding question by offering a view of what the factors are in promoting achievement for students with disabilities and how SES and type of disability help predict outcomes for African American students with special needs.

Wagner, M. M., Newman, L. A., & Javitz, H. S. (2014). The Influence of Family Socioeconomic Status on the Post-High School Outcomes of Youth With Disabilities. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals,37(1), 5-17. doi:10.1177/2165143414523980

Click to access 5.full.pdf

Poor, Black, Learning Disabled, and Graduating

Christopher Murray and Jason Naranjo of the University of Oregon completed a qualitative study about graduation for African American students with disabilities. The study consisted of field notes and interviews with students from Chicago that are graduating high school in four years, which is uncommon for disadvantaged, African American students who are in the special education system. The study was conducted in a neighborhood that experienced white flight during the 1950s due to the loss of manufacturing jobs. The community is extremely impoverished and had the second highest violence rate in Chicago at the time the article was written. “These factors contributed to widespread displacement of workers, chronic unemployment, and widespread poverty, which were further exacerbated by disinvestment in urban communities during the late 1970s and 1980s.” (Pg. 147) Murray and Naranjo examine the risk factors of African American youth in the impoverished neighborhood, and also explain the outcomes of dropping out and how it leads to crime, drug-abuse, and violence.

I learned the factors of educational success are individual, family-life, peer-based, and teacher relations. Throughout my research each of these factors have come up and to see a study focus on the meaning of these categories help synthesize a lot of information. If these factors were examined and handled more appropriately I think there would be a decrease in the rate at which African American students are being categorized as disabled. Much of my research has been based on national or large-scale data which is sometimes inconclusive because there is so much variation in every community. I learned that the number of students labeled disabled and their dropout rates in a specific community show a clearer picture of what the rates actually look like for disadvantaged students in special education. “Studies such as the one conducted here are important, because they offer insight into the perspectives of marginalized youth who persist in school when the odds are against them.” (Pg. 158) This article helps answer my guiding question because the factors and data of a smaller-scale study about African Americans with disabilities is more similar to what many schools in this country look like.

Murray, C., & Naranjo, J. (2008). Poor, Black, Learning Disabled, and Graduating: An Investigation of Factors and Processes Associated With School Completion Among High-Risk Urban Youth. Remedial and Special Education, 29(3), 145-160. doi:10.1177/0741932508315052

 

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 and IDEA regulations of 2006

The Focus on Exceptional Children is a monthly journal for education professionals who works with students with special needs. In 2006 The Love Publishing Co. released an article that explains the re-authorization process of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004. NCLB is highly spoken of in this article and alignment of IDEA and NCLB are the main focus. A main focus on IDEA 2004 is Individualized Education Programs (IEP). Accommodations for students with special needs are a priority, as is standardized testing for students with special needs. I learned that there is information about parental involvement, but they only need a parent’s approval once before moving on with their own classification of students. While I think this article is very informational, the agenda it is putting forward sounds like corporate reform. The emphasis on teacher effectiveness based on yearly improvement of student test scores is challenging in special education because each student is in the program based on their individual differences.

“Although more precise guidelines for participation now are in place, flexibility in determining the appropriate instructional, assessment, and performance judgment options remains.” (Pg. 22) This article is confusing in that it offers strict guidelines for schools to adhere to, but it also mentions wavers that can submitted in order to opt out of testing for a school’s students with special needs. And the guidelines for assessing students that may have a disability are supposed to be based on peer-reviewed research but they say they are allowed to be flexible on “performance judgement options.” I learned that a lot of the legislature of IDEA is opening doors for schools and districts to escape certain legal aspects of special education, while taking control over how they label students. The Focus on Exceptional Children helps in my research because I see many contradictions that I did not realize before. This article sparked my curiosity about the timing of when it was passed and how it has affected minorities with special needs.

Yell, M. L., Shriner, J. G., & Katsiyannis, A. (2006). Individuals with disabilities education improvement act of 2004 and IDEA regulations of 2006: Implications for educators, administrators, and teacher trainers. Focus on exceptional children, 39(1), 1-24. Chicago.

Click to access FOEC-V391B.pdf

The Disproportionate Placement of African American Males in Special Education Programs: A Critique of the Process

The Journal of Negro Education wrote a critique about the education system and the unfair and invalid practices of placing a disproportionate amount of African American males in special education. This journal provides an in-depth overview of the history of special education laws and the ever-evolving ways in which it has bended to suit the needs of public schools. The journal states, “…the special education process is unfair if the operational conceptualization of disability is itself invalid.” (Pg. 606) The classifications for students with special needs has undergone a lot of change, and the responsibility of schools to dismantle “judgement categories of disabilities” is crucial to give African American males a fair chance at education.

A history of many lawsuits that have effected the laws for special education in public schools are laid out in this journal. I learned that in 1974 there was a case in San Francisco, Larry P. vs. Wilson Riles, which brought up the issue of five African American male students were being unfairly classified in special education. I want to focus on the Bay Area and Oakland in particular for my research and this was a big step for the awareness of the issue. The history of classification and the separation of classifications for African American students in special education is shown and there is a lot of data in this article that helps in my research. I learned that the categories that many African American male students are being put into are “judgement based disabilities.” When classified as a special needs student there needs to be unbiased opinion and also a multidisciplinary team that works together to diagnose the disability. Schools have mild disability categories that have more to do with the students culture and not a biological disability.

The amount of information in this journal is extremely helpful for my resource collection. There is so much history presented that will help me see specific patterns for the placement of African American males with special needs. The information provided about the classifications and the changes they have undergone in the past forty years is helpful to see the reasons behind the disproportionate placement problem.

Harry, B., & Anderson, M. G. (1994). The Disproportionate Placement of African American Males in Special Education Programs: A Critique of the Process. The Journal of Negro Education, 63(4), 602. doi:10.2307/2967298

http://www.jstor.org.stmarys-ca.idm.oclc.org/stable/2967298?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Minorities

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) examines trends in education differing by race and ethnicity. The NCES recognizes 6 different groups; White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaskan Native. The study clearly defines what they mean by each category and have also clearly defines what makes a group a minority, which is every group other than White. With new information and a growing population of minorities in the past thirty years, the NCES shows percentage categories of contributing factors to problems in education by race/ ethnicity.

African American’s are the most impoverished in the three sub-categories of married/coupled parents, single female household (no husband present), and single male household (no wife present). I also learned that African Americans only have 36% married, coupled parents, which is far less than any other category. With a huge focus on African American students with special needs, I see poverty and family structure as a big reason why students are having a hard time in school. “Research has suggested that growing up in poverty can negatively impact children’s mental and behavioral development and well as their overall health, making it more difficult for them to learn.” (Pg. 16) I also learned that the top five largest school districts in the United States had very low percentages of White students, and mainly had African American and Latino students.

Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Minorities provides so much primary information about areas of education that are often a concern. This study is helpful because it also offered insight into more publications such as Status and Trends in the Education of Blacks and Status and Trends in the Education of Hispanics. These trends and statistics help answer my guiding question because the numbers are proportional to the main concerns that have arisen about cultural and financial issues that effect why students are put into special education.

Kewal-Ramani, A. (2007). Status and trends in the education of racial and ethnic minorities. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Dept. of Education.

https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED498259

Disproportionate Representation of Minorities in Special Education – How Bad?

 

This resource is a presentation created by Ruben Gentry Ed.D., professor of special education at Jackson State University. The study was presented at the The 3rd Annual Jane H. Leblanc Symposium in Communication Disorders at Arkansas State University. Gentry examines the history of minorities in special education with a focus on legislature that has emerged to protect students with special needs. African American students are the most represented group in special education, especially in the categories of intellectual disabilities and severely emotionally disturbed. They are being placed in special education because educators are misinterpreting behavior problems and misunderstanding cultural differences.” (Pg. 9)

The Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA), previously Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA), was reauthorized to make sure students with special needs had opportunities for a Free and Fair Public Education (FAPE.) While I have studied some legislation behind students with special needs rights to education, this source offers insight into the timeline and history of special education legislation.

I learned in the source that there has been a large focus on the over-representation of minority students within the IDEA legislature. In 2004 IDEA was reorganized to make sure schools monitored their disproportionate amount of minority students in special education. This helps to answer my guiding question because it gives me a basis to explore different school community’s data collection and changes made in school’s special education programs.

Disproportionate Representation of Minorities in Special Education–How Bad? : ERIC : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive. (2009, June). Retrieved July 01, 2016, from https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED505997

https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED505997